In a comprehensive review article, Niederdeppe, Bigman, Gonzales, and Gollust (2013) pursued four objectives: “(a) identify key outcomes and audiences for communication about health disparities; (b) describe what is known about public awareness of health disparities; (c) review selected research on the content of communication about health disparities in the mass media, the effects of that communication, and opportunities for use of mass media technology in communication about health disparities; and (d) identify priorities for future research to understand how communication about health disparities can shape concern and action to reduce health disparities” (pp. In shifting to aspects of mental health, a meta-analysis of 12 studies that considered migration, social mobility, and mental health found that migrants who experienced “downward social mobility” were more likely to experience mental disorders than those who either had no change in their socioeconomic status or experienced an increase in socioeconomic status (Das-Munshi, Leavey, Stansfeld, & Prince, 2012). Two studies provide examples of the kinds of analyses possible. Health disparities are differences in health outcomes between groups that reflect social inequalities. This report issued by the Institute of Medicine documents the extent of U.S. health disparities and the factors that contribute to them; it also recommends strategies to reduce health disparities. Results of their meta-analysis found that in the least urban countries, higher levels of education were associated with higher levels of body mass index but in the most urban countries, higher levels of education were associated with lower levels of body mass index. A systematic review and meta-analysis, http://www.health.harvard.edu/newsletter_article/mars-vs-venus-the-gender-gap-in-health, http://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/about/foundation-health-measures/Determinants-of-Health, Temporal trends and racial/ethnic disparity in self-reported pediatric food allergy in the United States, Translating research evidence into practice to reduce health disparities: A social determinants approach, Contribution of communication inequalities to disparities in human papillomavirus vaccine awareness and knowledge, Psychological morbidity and quality of life of ethnic minority patients with cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis, The relationship between health literacy and health disparities: A systematic review, “White Box” epidemiology and the social neuroscience of health behaviors: The Environmental affordances model, Recruitment and retention for community-based eHealth interventions with populations of low socioeconomic position: Strategies and challenges, Female gender is an independent prognostic factor in non-small-cell lung cancer: A meta-analysis, Effect of culturally tailored diabetes education in ethnic minorities with type 2 diabetes, Communication about health disparities in the mass media, http://www.cdc.gov/minorityhealth/OMHHE.html, Introduction: Communication and health care disparities, http://www.rwjf.org/en/library/annual-reports/presidents-message-2014.html, http://www.equinetafrica.org/sites/default/files/uploads/documents/ROCequity.pdf, Rethinking the vulnerability of minority populations in research, Socioeconomic inequality and caries: A systematic review and meta-analysis, Socioeconomic differences in lung cancer incidence: A systematic review and meta-analysis, http://www.health.gov/communication/literacy/, Socioeconomic disadvantage and disease-specific mortality in Asia: Systematic review with meta-analysis of population-based cohort studies, Health disparities, communication inequalities, and ehealth, Cancer information disparities between U.S.- and foreign-born populations, The ACT2 Program and Eliminating Racial and Ethnic Disparities in HIV and AIDS Clinical Trials: A Case Study in Health and Risk Messaging, Neighborhood Considerations for Social Determinants of Health and Risk, Culture, a Social Determinant of Health and Risk: Considerations for Health and Risk Messaging, Statistical Evidence in Health and Risk Messaging, Government-Driven Incentives to Improve Health, Public Health and Community Organizing as Agents for Change in Health and Risk Messaging, Ethical Issues and Considerations in Health and Risk Message Design, Communications Research in Using Genomics for Health Promotion. This should include differences and health outcomes between groups. The journal also publishes review articles, short communications, letters to the editor, and notes from the field.” (http://link.springer.com/journal/10903), Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities: “Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities aims to report on the scholarly progress of work to understand, address, and ultimately eliminate health disparities based on race and ethnicity. Health equity means social justice in health (i.e., no one is denied the possibility to be healthy for belonging to a group that has historically been economically/socially disadvantaged). In considering various definitions of health disparities, Carter-Pokras and Baquet (2002) observed three approaches: “(1) comparison with the non-minority or majority population … (2) comparison with the general population … and (3) differences among segments of the population” (p. 492). These models can be categorized into socioenvironmental, psychosocial/behavioral, and biogenetic/physiological (LaVeist, 2005; see also Diez Roux, 2012 and Dressler, Oths, & Gravlee, 2005). Printed from Oxford Research Encyclopedias, Communication. The remaining DD could be plausibly attributed to the reform. Nam, Janson, Stotts, Chesla, and Kroon (2012) conducted a meta-analysis of 12 studies investigating the impact of culturally tailored diabetes education for ethnic minorities. (2011) reviewed a sample of CDC’s Racial and Ethnic Approaches to Community Health programs (CDC, 2012) and identified an array of promising programs designed to address a host of disparities, including asthma, cancer, diabetes, and hepatitis. This is a program that was started in 2003 with the support of the National Cancer Institute, the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, the National Institute on Aging, and the Office of Behavioral and Social Sciences Research and continued in 2009 by the National Cancer Institute; the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; and the Office of Behavioral and Social Sciences Research. Health inequities are unfair and could be reduced by the right mix of government policies. Harrington (2013) also highlighted the importance of the work of communication scholars in these efforts: Communication scholars have a clear role to play in many of the efforts to reduce health disparities. Findings also showed a main interaction effect between ethnicity and racial identity conformity attitudes and mental health outcomes with high conformity linked to increased perceived stress for Latino Caribbeans and Black Caribbeans compared to African Americans. The authors included 36 studies in their review, 31 of which were conducted in the United States. Some researchers separate definitions of health inequality from health disparity by preventability. The authors emphasized the importance of partnerships with governments, businesses, and organizations to help disseminate research-based interventions. Promising studies that are ongoing or studies that have longer term data are welcome, as are studies that serve as lessons for best practices in eliminating health disparities. These deaths affect mainly young adults in their most productive years. These inequities arise from inequalities within and between societies. The Journal invites submission of original manuscripts from researchers, public health, behavioral health, clinical and social science experts and practitioner that seek to continue the discussion of health disparities in order to eradicate them.” (http://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/jhdrp/), Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health: “The Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health is an international forum for the publication of peer-reviewed original research pertaining to immigrant health. These inequities have significant social and economic costs both to individuals and societies. Parsing the respondents into “general health information seekers” and “cancer information seekers” revealed interesting subtleties. Furthermore, children from rural and poorer households remain disproportionately affected. In short, more and better research is needed if we are to advance our knowledge and build a cumulative science of health disparities. Health disparities can be considered along several fronts, including populations of interest; incidence and prevalence of morbidity and mortality; determinants of health; health literacy and health information seeking; media influences on health disparities; and efforts to reduce health disparities, including government/foundation efforts and research-driven interventions. Around 95% of TB deaths are in the developing world. Although a review of these theoretical models is beyond the scope of this entry, it is important to note that communication researchers should pay particular attention to those that highlight factors most amenable to communication interventions. A third point is whether differences are being measured in absolute (rate difference) or relative (rate ratio) terms—terms that may lead to similar or different conclusions depending on the aspect of health being measured. Coronavirus disease outbreak (COVID-2019), Coronavirus disease outbreak (COVID-19) ». Pre-reform differences in outcomes are perhaps due to unobserved differences across states that contaminated the previous, naive estimate. Health outcomes included self-reported health status, cancer-related outcomes, medication adherence and management, disease control, preventive care, and end-of-life decisions. Results showed a positive impact of such interventions compared to usual care, with women who received culturally tailored education showing improvement in their glycemic control. due to age, while … The authors observe that their findings “confirm research suggesting that Black newspapers tailor their newswriting to give readers more personally relevant and local information” (p. 433), which may prove beneficial in promoting cancer prevention. In a meta-analysis of 32 studies designed to determine the effectiveness of smoking cessation interventions among disadvantaged groups, Bryant, Bonevski, Paul, McElduff, and Attia (2011) found evidence of short-term effects for interventions for low income women and long-term follow-up effects among persons with mental illness. ‘Health inequalities’ refers to differences in health outcomes between groups, for example a higher rate of lung cancer incidence in more deprived areas compared with less deprived areas. The 2011 CHDIR was the first CDC report to assess disparities across a wide range of diseases, behavioral risk factors, environmental exposures, social determinants, and health-care access (CDC. Mortality. In low-income countries, the average life expectancy is 62 years, while in high-income countries, it is 81 years. -two groups, one outcome, at two time points* Hotelling's T^2-measuring more than 1 dependent variable-difference between two mean vectors ... size effect-a quantitative measure of the strength of a phenomenon-a significance test does not tell the size of a difference between two measures (practical significance) ... How should the results of statistical analysis be considered in the context of health … Children in the main minority groups have similar or better mental health than White British children for common disorders, but may have higher rates for some less common conditions. Different outcomes in mental and physical health exist between all census-recognized racial groups, but these differences stem from different historical and current factors, including genetics, socioeconomic factors, and racism. There are also differences in outcomes relating to socioeconomic status, ethnicity, geographical area and other social factors. Of central interest to communication researchers, differences in health literacy and health information seeking are revealed between advantaged and disadvantaged groups. Below is a sample of meta-analytic studies of interventions designed to reduce a variety of health disparities. One example is smoking, a key driver of poor health and premature mortality. First, though, it is important to ask whether such efforts have any chance at improving health disparities. Interventions that enhanced access to mammography services had the largest effect; tailored interventions had a larger effect than non-tailored interventions; ethnically matched interventions and culturally matched intervention materials also had positive effects. Braveman (2014) emphasizes this point in her discussion of health disparities and health equity, noting that in this context, health disparities are not merely differences in health status; rather, they are differences stemming from inequity: Health equity and health disparities are intertwined. The analysis compared health news stories from 23 weekly Black newspapers to stories from a sample of 12 daily general audience newspapers and considered the extent to which there were differences in cancer coverage, reporting of types of cancer, reporting of disparities, inclusion of local information, and inclusion of “personally mobilizing” information. These are covered in the report, but we’ve placed a special focus on inequalities between ethnic groups and see major differences in health behaviours and outcomes between them. We applied the sampling weights to all models to account for the CLHLS study design. Reducing inequalities shoul… Ellison (2005) notes that the validity and reliability of ethnicity data depend on measurement … Results showed that Black newspapers were more likely to feature cancer stories and that those cancer stories were more likely to include disparity information, local information, and personal mobilization information. (2010) reviewed several programs across local, national, and global levels that have been enacted to reduce health disparities and found considerable evidence of positive impact. differences in health outcomes by groups, for instance, between males and females, people of different ethnicities, and people of lower and higher socioeconomic status. Moreover, when adapting to the multi-cultural contexts of the … This report is the result of an independent review commissioned by England’s Secretary of State for Health to identify evidence-based strategies to reduce health inequalities in the country. Its mission statement is simply put: “to improve the health and health care of all Americans” (RWJF, n.d.). Health disparities are large differences in health outcomes between groups based on the social determinants of health. Definition of Health Inequalities Health inequalities are unfair and avoidable differences in health across the population, and between different groups within society. Explain what challenges disparate populations face in your state. Expand efforts to dismantle historical and contemporary drivers of stigmatization and discrimination of persons who are members of disparate populations. (2009) determined that such interventions were effective. In a meta-analysis of 23 studies involving interventions to encourage ethnic minority women to obtain mammograms, Han et al. It reveals the extent to which disparities pervade all aspects of health, including physical health, mental health, and survival. A study investigating socioeconomic inequalities in health in 22 European countries found that mortality rates were higher and self-assessments of health were lower for groups with lower socioeconomic status (Mackenbach et al., 2008). In recent years, interest in health literacy has burgeoned. Additional examples of health disparities between groups by socioeconomic status, race/ethnicity, sex, and other factors will become apparent in the section on morbidity and mortality that follows. It seems to have taken until the turn of the century before academic health researchers began paying serious attention to issues of health disparities. Health inequities are systematic differences in the health status of different population groups. Select agencies within the National Institutes of Health also support what are called Centers for Population Health and Health Disparities (CPHHDs). The standard advice is to implement a randomized controlled trial (RCT) to avoid confounding and isolate tr… Although these particular meta-analyses suggest that disadvantaged groups may suffer from worse mental health, it should be noted that on the whole Hispanics and non-Hispanic Blacks have a lower risk for mental illness than non-Hispanic Whites (Breslau et al., 2006; Mezuk et al., 2013), although their access to mental health care may be worse (McGuire & Miranda, 2008). People with low health literacy may not understand information they receive from their health care providers or from media sources, so the question of whether or not health literacy is related to health disparities is of interest. Hundreds of academic journals publish research related to health disparities; however, some have a primary focus on the topic. Better instead to delineate explicitly persisting and changing structural and political determinants of these persisting—and changing—inequalities, including who deliberately or inadvertently benefits from these inequalities, so as to inform efforts to secure social equity in health. 1–5 Individuals from black and minority ethnic (BME) groups have generally been found more likely to report poor general health than the white British population, 6 and those of black Caribbean, black African, Indians, Pakistani and Bangladeshi heritage have also been found more likely to report a limiting long-term illness than … Implications for mental health practitioners and ongoing research are discussed. They offered seven recommendations, quoted here: Reframe the discussion about health disparities and inequities. First, different groups can have access or be exposed to different kinds of health information, which may either exacerbate or potentially ameliorate disparities depending on the nature of the coverage. Health disparities are a global issue, and many different groups of people are affected by them. Methodological advances in identifying, defining, and measuring health disparities are needed to enhance the quality of our research. In doing so, communication researchers must keep communication theory in mind and focus on those etiological factors that would respond to a communication intervention. Harvard social epidemiologist Nancy Krieger (2001) wrote a letter to the editor of the International Journal of Epidemiology noting how toward the end of the 20th century, researchers were publishing papers that reported “seemingly new observations” regarding the relationship between socioeconomic status and health status. In terms of policy, requiring seatbelt use, restricting smoking areas, and increasing tax on alcoholic beverages all can have a positive impact on health. (State- and local-level agencies have similar charges, but a review of these is beyond the scope of this essay.) Morbidity refers to illness and disease, whereas mortality refers to death. The Office for National Statistics analyses deaths that could be averted or delayed through timely, effective health care (‘amenable mortality’) or wider public health interventions (‘preventable mortality’). As is easily imagined, there are concerted efforts being made on many fronts to reduce health disparities. This should include differences and health … When da… As might be expected, there are health disparities in both cases. This report investigates health disparities in the United Kingdom related to socioeconomic status, ethnic status, and sex; it also makes recommendations to address the social determinants of health underlying the disparities. Meta-analyses also have found differences in disease survival by ethnicity and sex. They found that respondents who did not use the Internet had less awareness of the HPV vaccine and were less likely to know that HPV causes cervical cancer. Factors contributing to health disparities are many and multifaceted. The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (RWJF), a philanthropy established in 1972, is the largest such organization in the United States whose work is focused entirely on health. The authors drew several important conclusions from their review. Danaei et al. Comparing Hispanics only, Zhao found that foreign-born respondents were less likely to seek information for themselves and less likely to trust information from their doctor or the Internet; most of the differences found for the groups on the whole also held for the Hispanic subgroups. RWJF focus areas are child and family well-being, health coverage, health leadership and workforce, health system improvement, healthy weight, and health communities. Close to 1 billion people in the world live in slum conditions, representing about one quarter of the world's urban population. Since the 1980s, our nation has made substantial progress in improving residents’ health and reducing health disparities, but ongoing racial/ethnic, economic, and other social disparities in health are both unacceptable and correctable. This landmark report, commissioned in 1984 by Margaret M. Heckler, the Secretary of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, documents the factors that influence health disparities among Blacks, Hispanics, Asian/Pacific Islanders, and Native Americans, and it offers recommendations to reduce them through (a) health information and education, (b) health services, (c) health professions development, (d) cooperative efforts, (e) data development, and (f) a minority health-focused research agenda. There is ample evidence that social factors, including education, employment status, income level, gender and ethnicity have a marked influence on how healthy a person is. In the extensive literature on socioeconomic health disparities, less attention has been paid to examining the variability in health outcomes within social or economic groups. The European Parliament has estimated that losses linked to health inequities cost around 1.4% of gross domestic product (GDP) within the European Union – a figure almost as high as the EU's defense spending (1.6% of GDP). Original articles, solicited ‘evolutionary’ reviews presenting the state-of-the-art thinking on problems centered on health disparities, and unsolicited review articles of timely interest will be considered for publication.” (http://www.springer.com/medicine/journal/40615; Note: This journal is identified as the “First journal dedicated to examining and eliminating racial and ethnic health disparities.”). There is no biological or genetic reason for these alarming differences in health. 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